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后来许富翔主动道歉,化解了矛盾。文化与科学:中医的知识社会学解读2020-05-08 10:38·新华网来源:光明日报知识社会学是社会学的分支学科,旨在通过对知识的社会学考察,从社会性、历史性、互动性和建构性视角理解知识的属性和意义。中医药在抗击新冠肺炎疫情的斗争中发挥了积极而重要的作用,与此同时,长期以来备受争议的中医学学科属性问题也再次凸显出来。中医究竟只是一种文化,还是一门科学?有必要从知识社会学视角加以认识。中医文化同时也是中医科学“中医”这一名称是近代西方医学进入中国之后才产生的。中国古代对医学和医生有自己的称谓,如岐黄、杏林、青囊、郎中等。19世纪以来进入中国的西方传教士,是“中医”概念的最早使用者。作为在中华大地上土生土长的知识体系,中医学绵延发展已逾两千多年。《黄帝内经》是我国现存最早的一部中医学典籍,奠定了中医诊病治病养生的理论基础。其天人合一天人感应、阴阳五行相生相克的思想,浓缩了中国古代哲学对世界的认知。中医在发展过程中不断吸取儒家、道家思想精华,成为中华传统文化最具代表性的精粹之一。可见,中医既具有鲜明的文化属性,也具有治病救人的重要功能,这并无任何争议。只是到了近代,西方科学传入中国,西方医学开始为人所知并广为流传,而中医的治病救人的理论基础与西医存在重大不同,由此引发了中医是不是科学的争论。而这就涉及科学的标准和边界问题。知识社会学主张将科学放在历史背景下、置于文化情境中去解释和理解,而事实上科学哲学对于科学的划界标准也一直随着历史变迁而处于不断发展变化之中。早期的逻辑实证主义科学观被证伪主义所取代;紧接着美国科学哲学家库恩提出“范式”理论,认为科学就是一定时期科学共同体拥有的共同信念,包括概念、理论、方法、话语体系。可以看到,无论是否认可中医的科学属性,都否认不了中医很早就已发展成为一套拥有自身概念范畴且逻辑自洽的知识体系,并为“中医共同体”全体成员所共同认可。与库恩同时代的英国科学哲学家拉卡托斯则在波普尔“朴素证伪主义”的基础上发展出“精致证伪主义”,他认为科学就是“进步的研究纲领”。拉卡托斯提出的“科学研究纲领方法论”包括“硬核”“保护带”“反面启发法”和“正面启发法”四个部分。从中医发展历程看,“天人合一”、人与自然和谐的观念构成其自古至今一以贯之的“内核”;经络穴位、五脏六腑、阴阳平衡等学说形成“辅助假设保护带”。在此意义上,中医学理论体系完全够得上是“进步的研究纲领”。科学哲学实际上未能回答中医作为文化和科学的矛盾问题。文化,人文教化,狭义上主要指文学艺术精神生活层面的内容。广义的文化,泛指一切人类创造物——无论是精神的还是物质的。在此意义上,科学也属于文化范畴。从漫长的人类社会演进史看,“科学”是直到晚近几百年才出现的文化现象,人文主义思潮孕育了近代自然科学。科学产生于文化,尔后又逐步从文化中独立出来。一般而言,狭义的文化具有地域属性;而“科学无国界”,指的是追求客观真理和普遍性规律的科学知识须超越地域属性,放之四海而皆准。中医学从起源上属于地方性知识。从中医典籍可以看到,中医发展之初,就尽量自觉地与巫术划清界限。英国科学史家李约瑟将包括中医在内的中国古代科学划入“前科学”范畴。西医在早期也是源自欧洲的地方性知识,由于其与近代自然科学的紧密渊源,很快发展扩张成为全球性知识体系。早期的中医当然只限于中国甚至只限于汉族范围,但发展过程中不断汲取了藏医、苗医、波斯医等民族传统医学的有益成分,近代以来中医已大踏步走出了国门。新冠肺炎疫情全球肆虐,在我国国内抗疫以及外派医疗队参与全球抗疫过程中,中医药均担当了重要角色,这表明中医药对于整个人类具有普遍意义。正如《不列颠百科全书》的“科学”条目的解释,“科学涉及一种对知识的追求,包括追求各种普遍真理或各种基本规律的应用”。千百年来中医治病救人战胜瘟疫保障种族延续的有效性,表明其理论能够反映客观规律,具有科学性。中医的整体性思维与复杂性科学系统观高度一致就指导思想和基本原理而言,西医可以被归结为还原论医学,理论遵循形式逻辑和实验理性。中医是整体论医学,遵循辩证逻辑实践理性。还原论思想与近代自然科学的发展相一致:笃信整体由局部组成,高级运动由低级运动组成。西医作为现代医学,其基础理论建构在物理学、化学、生物学、人体解剖学、心理学等坚实的科学基础之上,发展出病理学、药理学以及内科外科妇科儿科等细分的一整套体系。对于大多数疾病的病因机制治疗原理已经可以从分子生物学层面得到解释,诊病治病从药物的分子式到受体细胞蛋白质结构都要一清二楚,药物疗效还必须通过精心设计的双盲实验加以检验。可检验可解释使得西医的科学性不容置疑。中医诊病治病原则上是把个体的人看作一个整体生命体,人体各部分相互联系“相生相克”,进一步把人与自然界也视为一个整体,将人体健康病痛与气候季节地理环境联系起来,区分阴阳表里寒热虚实辨证施治。中药基本是天然植物动物制品,故称“中草药”。有“丸、散、膏、丹、汤”不同剂型,方剂“君臣佐使”配伍,讲究平衡协调。中医在药物之外还有更多非药物手段,针刺、艾灸、拔罐、刮痧、推拿、按摩、正骨等,根据经络穴位可以“头疼医脚、脚痛扎耳”。中医还强调“药食同源”,预防保健“治未病”。20世纪中叶以来,自然科学的发展越来越多转向以复杂性为主要对象,复杂性科学应运而生。复杂性科学的核心工具是系统论,强调相互联系、平衡协调,“整体大于部分之和”。不难看到,中医的整体论思维与系统思想完全吻合,高度一致。我国系统科学领军人、著名科学家钱学森就曾经指出,“中医理论包含了许多系统论的思想,而这是西医的严重缺点。所以中医现代化是医学发展的正道,而且最终会引起科学技术体系的改造——科学革命”。以发展的眼光看待中医理论的科学性科学发展史表明,科学的进步就是一个“猜想与反驳”不断逼近真理的过程。例如,人工智能“阿尔法狗”下围棋达到战无不胜的境界,但其赢棋的机理却不容易解释。人类顶尖围棋高手直呼“看不懂”,而开发设计“阿尔法狗”的工程师团队表示,“阿尔法狗”赢棋靠的是“深度学习”,是大量反复对弈积累经验的结果。但我们知道,“深度学习”仅是对人脑多层神经网络结构和思维认知过程的形式模仿,是人工智能取得突破的“底层算法”,并不能解释“阿尔法狗”如何行棋落子并赢棋的机理。为了给“不可解释性”一个解释,人工智能科学家提出了“暗知识”的概念:机器学习能够萃取出“人类无法感受且不可表达的知识”。与“暗知识”相对应的“明知识”,则是人们能够感受、理解和表达的知识。“暗知识”的提出反映了人类认知的局限性。当代人不可感知的“暗知识”,也许未来能够理解和表达,“暗知识”就转化为“明知识”。实践是检验真理的唯一标准。中医理论的科学性已经被数千年实践所证实,并将在今后的发展中进一步检验,因而不能由于对机理原理的暂时不理解,而轻易予以排斥和否定。总之,借助知识社会学对中医、西医及其关系的分析可知,二者都具有文化属性,因其都起源于地方性知识,并由于历史原因已经形成了各具特色的中医文化和西医文化;二者都是医学科学,但属于两种不同范式的科学体系。历史地看,科学的标准和边界一直处于变动之中,人类的认知能力和认知视野也在不断提升和拓展。因此,以发展的眼光看待中医理论的科学性,才是我们追求真理、探索未知的正确态度。(作者:石英,系西北农林科技大学人文与社会发展学院教授、中国社会学会副会长)
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只(窜丑颈)有(驰辞耻)这(窜丑别)样(驰补苍驳),才(颁补颈)能(狈别苍驳)做(窜耻辞)出(颁丑耻)最(窜耻颈)符(贵耻)合(贬别)长(颁丑补苍驳)远(驰耻补苍)利(尝颈)益(驰颈)的(顿别)决(闯耻别)定(顿颈苍驳)。
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同(罢辞苍驳)一(驰颈)首(厂丑辞耻)歌(骋别),在(窜补颈)其(蚕颈)他(罢补)舞(奥耻)台(罢补颈)设(厂丑别)计(闯颈)的(顿别)舞(奥耻)蹈(顿补辞)动(顿辞苍驳)作(窜耻辞)全(蚕耻补苍)没(惭别颈)跳(罢颈补辞)。
4. 有没有办法把缠绕的头发分离出来,老婆限我半小时完成任务。对于油罐车混装食用油的问题,曾经在2005年就被报道过。书包网辣文全本小说全文阅读冲书包网辣文全本小说冲最新...
很多人或许会觉得这些行为不过是小习惯但心理学家警告:这些小小的肢体动作可能暗藏着深刻的心理问题甚至是潜在的精神疾病征兆
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