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明朝经济的困境:既然“四海无闲田”,为何“农夫犹饿死”?首发2023-12-30 16:38·掘古探幽#文章首发挑战赛##头条创作挑战赛#穿越古今,纵横万里,洞悉纷繁世事,纵观世界风云变幻,为你解析大国之间博弈的底层逻辑,欣赏历史长河的波光谲异。在上一篇文章(明初朱元璋疯狂折腾,为何没有像秦朝和隋朝一样,成为短命王朝?)讲到朱元璋为了解决贵金属通货紧缩的世纪难题,选择放弃商品经济和货币经济本身,而是建立起了一套适应小农自然经济基础的,所谓“本色”主义的财政税收制度,也就是朝廷直接以动员劳动产物实物以及劳动本身,而不是用货币税收来满足财政需求。然而,这套以实物税和劳役税为主的财政体系却在九边重镇巨额国防开支的压力下不堪重负,摇摇欲坠。终有明一朝,北方边患不断。九边重镇驻防的军队是越来越多。据《明武宗实录》记载,正德十一年(公元1516年),兵部上奏称:“祖宗御戎之法,规模宏远,东起辽阳,西至甘肃,烽堠万里……各镇带甲儿四十万,岁费粮草以百万计”。也就是说在明朝初期的洪武、永乐年间,九边总兵力大约40万人,每年耗费的钱粮折合成银两不下百万。又根据嘉靖朝兵部员外郎魏焕所著《九边考》,到了1541年,也就是嘉靖二十年,九边驻军总兵力达到470,592人。等到了1620年,也就是万历四十八年,户部尚书李如华奏称“九边共计一十三镇官兵八十六万七千九百六十四员名”。对于大明九边的几十万将士来说,最大的敌人首先还不是塞外草原上的瓦剌、鞑靼,而是如何要养活自己?本来明朝初期实行屯田制,边军就地开荒种田,基本能做到粮食自给。朱元璋对自己实行的军屯制度,那是非常骄傲的,认为“吾京师养兵百万,要令不费百姓一粒米”。嘉靖朝进士文献学家王齐嘉国所著的《续文献通考》中,曾对朝廷实行的军屯制度评论道:“军国之事,备边为急。备边之务,兵食为先。屯田之法,乃足食足兵之要道。”然而,大明九边重镇,基本是沿着所谓15英寸等雨线布阵而成的。这15英寸等雨线大致与长城一线重合。这条线以北、以西年降雨量低于400毫米,属于所谓温带大陆性气候,不适合农耕而适合游牧。只有这条线以南、以东年降雨量高于400毫米,属于所谓季风气候,才适合农耕;要在农耕文明与游牧文明彼此分割,还有彼此过渡的地方,屯垦农田谈何容易。在明朝初年,洪武、永乐年间政治清明,地广人稀,且蒙元新败,无力南下。在这些特定条件下,依靠边军屯田还可以满足军需。等到宣德政统年间,尤其是土木堡之变之后,军屯制度也就再也难以为继了。根据《明史录》记载,永乐元年(1403年),朝廷从全国军屯收取的田租达到了23,450,799石,而当年全国农业田赋夏税秋粮总额也不过31,29,9704石,军屯收入竟然占到全国农业赋税总收入的75%。但这一年,也是明代军屯收入的最高峰。到了永乐十五年(1417年)之后,终有明一朝,军屯田租就再也不曾超过1000万石。到正统朝(1436年-1449年)以后,全国军屯田租每年就只能收到二三百万石左右,竟然只有高峰期的10%。军屯的衰落不仅反映在租税上,也反映在屯田面积上,全国军事屯田面积在洪武永乐年间有70万顷左右,到了明宪宗成化二十三年(1487年),就只剩下了285,480顷。到了明武宗正德年间更是跌落到了16万顷多一点儿,竟然缩减到只有原额的20%。问题是,那另外的80%的军屯土地跑到哪里去了呢?这些土地显然不会自己插上翅膀飞出银河系,而是化公为私被势豪武官霸占去了。所谓的势豪武官的势豪,包括皇亲国戚、勋贵功臣、太监、地方豪强等。而武官则包括从都督总兵到千户、百户等各级官吏。本来明朝的军屯土地都属于国家所有,严禁私人买卖,尤其禁止豪强兼并。到明朝初期,势豪武官们慑于严刑峻法,还能有所收敛。从宣德朝也就是1426年到1435年之后渐渐的开始放纵,以至于积重难返。等到了正统十四年(1449年),土木堡之变以后,朝廷为了移民实边加强防务,在景泰元年(1450年)颁下诏书:“近边官豪势要一应人等有力之家尽力开种”。也就是说等于将势豪武官兼并军屯田地的行为合法化。这个口子一开,在京的宗室勋贵开始争相的占据口外军镇附近的膏腴田地,开立庄田;而次一等的田地,也被镇守总兵、参将、指挥等这些武官据为己。在日积月累之下,京畿九边军屯田地进入其谷中。实际上,早在宣德六年,也就是1431年。宁夏左屯尉指挥使张泰上奏朝廷弹劾宁夏总兵官宁阳侯陈懋:“私遣军士二百余人、操舟三十余艘,出境捕鱼采木,为虏所执者十余人。又遣军士二十人,人给二马,赍银往杭州市货物。……又私役军种田三千余顷,夺民水利,岁收之粟,召商贾收籴中盐。又与阎俊等遣军挽车九百余辆,载大盐池盐往卖于西安平凉等府”。这一段记载所反映出的信息量是非常大的。原本军屯田地的农业产出一半作为地租上缴国库,另外一半留在边镇作为军粮。从永乐元年的记录来看,国家从军屯征收租税达到了2340万石粮食,可以反推出在1400年前后,官军每年可以从军屯收取军粮1000到2000万石,养活几十万边军还是做得到的。可到了1500年前后的正德朝,军屯土地被势豪武官兼并去了十之八七。要知道,根据大明的组制,皇族勋贵、官员、读书人,都是优免赋税和徭役的,土地一旦兼并到这些人手里,国家和军队是收不到一粒粮食的。因此,土地还是那些土地,可朝廷和官军从军屯中所能获取的粮食供应竟然锐减到了每年只有两三百万石,古然在野在朝的清流们可以日夜著书礼说、写奏章,抨击土地兼并呼吁官绅一体纳粮。可是皇族、勋贵、官员、士人,实际上就是明王朝的统治集团。现实情况就是宗室、勋贵、官绅掌握着最多的土地,却不纳钱粮。而要改革不合理的土地财政制度,就要冒天下之大不违,需要最高皇权以无上的政治担当,以坚定的政治意志,支持大无畏的改革者,以雄狮般的胆魄和狐狸般的政治手腕将改革推进到底。可惜在封建王朝几乎是一项不可能完成的任务,终有明一朝,天下也只出了一个海瑞,也只有一个张居正。可中国几千年的漫长封建社会,秦孝公却也只有一个。既然改革者如此稀缺,清流们的道德文章中也长不出粮食来,而几十万边军喂饱肚子的问题,却又总要解决。于是朝廷不得不想尽一切办法来为边军筹粮。首先就是从京师的户部太仓国库拿银子运到边关就地采购粮草物资。这种做法就被称为京运。京运也被称为叫京运年利银。第二个办法,就是让北方各省的老百姓把本来要交给国库的粮食运送一部分到边关的号称叫民运粮,就是老百姓所运输的粮食。一开始,京运银子和民运粮食只是为了补偿军屯粮食之不足。但随着时间流逝,京运银和民运粮所占比重越来越大。根据《明史·食货志六》记载,以九边中的宣府镇为例,其粮食供应为军屯粮十三万二千余石,折合白银两万两千万两,而军运粮折合白银七十八万七千余两,而京运年利银则为十二万五千两。这样折算下来,军屯粮竟然只占到了宣抚镇全镇粮饷总供应的2%。到此,明太祖引以为傲的军屯制度实际上已经彻底破产了。然而,更严重的问题是,京运年利银和民运粮实际上都是国家用纳税人的血汗钱来赎买被势豪武官霸占去的军屯粮。而京运年利银消耗国库不说,民运粮对于百姓的负担和压榨也是过于慎重了,且不说百姓要拿出多少自己辛辛苦苦种的粮食去供应边镇军需,光是越过北方的崇山峻岭,把这些粮食手提肩扛运到边镇就已经是一件无比痛苦的事情。而到了明朝后期,民运粮实际上也难以为继。因为势豪武官兼并土地的脚步却不仅仅限于军屯,而是所有的民田,势豪武官连军屯的土地都敢私吞,还有什么田土是他们不敢兼并,不能兼并的。吊诡的是明朝的制度设计,恰恰是鼓励豪强兼并土地,甚至一般百姓都不见得不欢迎豪强来兼并自己的土地,竟至于还有不少人主动把自己的土地投献给豪强。那么这又是怎么回事呢?这就要从明朝的财政税负制度说起了。据《明史·食货志二》记载“太祖即位之初,定赋役法,一以黄册为准。册有丁有田,丁有役,田有租。租曰夏税,曰秋粮,凡二等。夏税无过八月,秋粮无过明年二月”。所谓赋,就是指的是农业税,原则上是每亩纳税粮三升三合五勺。如果老百姓租种的是官田,那就要交纳地租,这个租税就更高了,定额是每亩五升三合五勺。明朝初期,朝廷编定的所谓鱼鳞册,天下田亩都登记在册,按田亩来纳税。所谓的役,指的就是徭役,也就是免费给官府干活,包括开凿运河、修长城、修建官道桥梁、建筑城墙防御工事等,都要挨家挨户提供壮丁,免费给官府役使。明初朝廷编定了所谓的黄册,天下户口都登记在册,按户服役。你只要是大明的子民,年满十六岁就要服徭役,一直干到六十岁才能免除,谁家要是敢于隐瞒户口不报,那就要打板子。所谓“丁有役,田有租”,意思就是说你只要是壮丁,就得为官府服摇役。你只要种田就要交皇粮,正如明太祖朱元璋所说“民有田则有租,有绅则有役,历代相承,皆寻其救”。对于老百姓的负担来说,比起租税,徭役还要可怕的多。想想吧,你本来家住在苏州的城边,家中有屋,又有田,生活乐无边。忽然一夜之间被官府抓去河北修长城,或者把你家田里打的粮食运送一部分送到辽东镇。不说长途跋涉,风餐露宿的艰辛了,也不说你去服徭役,家里的活没人干,就连你能不能活着回家都成了问题。由于官府的徭役而家道衰落者更加不知有多少。清初有一个人叫叶梦珠,生于明朝天启四年,是南直隶松江府人,曾经考中过明朝的秀才,后来屡试不第,一直以私塾先生为生。这位叶梦珠先生在回忆明朝的社会生活时,就曾经说:“吾乡之甲于天下者,非独赋税也。徭役亦然,为他省他郡所无,而役之最重者,莫如布解北运。即以吾邑论:布解每年一名,后增至三名,俱领库银买粗细青蓝素布,雇船起运,至京交卸”。也就是说,江南的老百姓除了田租之外,还要织布交税,而且还要自己雇船把布匹一直运送到北京,这就被称为叫布解北运。由此可见,百姓所受徭役之苦有多么深重,除了布解之外,还有诸如粮长、里甲、卸户码头等各种名头的徭役,个个都是催命符,应役者往往破家,而徭役之苦又何止于江南呢?陕西省潼关县治田赋志.徭役篇记载:“徭役竭诚罪苦,如京兆铺陈之宜,不堪文赋,故意赐即马头、仓库之宜,上产之家亦苦于在应”。意思就是说陕西潼关县的老百姓要被抓到京师去修城墙,甚至抓到九边去修城堡,修长城,简直就是苦不堪言。而稍微轻松一点的徭役,比如马头、仓库等等,也就是帮着官府养马、管理仓库等,连富裕人家也往往承担不起,那么承担不起怎么办呢?只有贿赂地方官,减轻徭役,要么就是干脆的逃亡。明朝曾官至吏部侍郎的常州人吴宽在没有考中进士的时候,家里也要应付织机役。织机役就是要派人到官办的纺织厂免费干活,叫做人役征徭摆壮。吴侍郎在当时他只是一名秀才,为了减轻负担只能贿赂地方官以宽其事,但也有贿赂不顶事的,或者就算付了贿赂,也承担不起的,那就只有逃徭了。明代文学家归有光的舅父在自己的家乡,那也算是有头有脸的人物,就被官府任命为一乡的粮长。粮长听起来好像像是个小官的样子。但其实他也是一种徭役,也就是帮着官府催粮收税。倒霉的是,如果你收不到足额的税赋,你就得自己掏腰包去补贴。到了正德庚午年岁,大清也就是出了这个大的自然灾害,就根本收不上天赋了,而县官又不肯轻徭薄赋,归有光的舅舅乃至于到了倾家荡产的地步,仍然不能完成征粮的任务,只能毁家逃难。可是普天之下莫非王土,率土之滨莫非王臣,你逃亡又能逃到哪里去呢?而且百姓一旦逃亡,也就脱离了户籍,没了户籍就不再是边户齐民,就不算是大明的子民了,也就没有各种民事权利,不能拥有田产,也不能去考科举,又如何在天地间立足呢?好在天无绝人之路,朝廷还是给自己的子民留了一条生路,一条沿着社会阶梯向上攀登的上升通道。这究竟是怎样的一条生路呢?

2024年12月13日,接着,这警车还压了实线变道,当时路上车不多。

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大(顿补)皖(奥补苍)新(齿颈苍)闻(奥别苍)讯(齿耻苍)7月(驰耻别)10日(搁颈),一(驰颈)条(罢颈补辞)"济(闯颈)南(狈补苍)殡(窜耻辞)仪(驰颈)馆(骋耻补苍)8个(骋别)花(贬耻补)篮(尝补苍)收(厂丑辞耻)费(贵别颈)13800元(驰耻补苍)"的(顿别)话(贬耻补)题(罢颈)在(窜补颈)网(奥补苍驳)络(尝耻辞)引(驰颈苍)发(贵补)热(搁别)议(驰颈)。

飞补苍驳测耻别肠丑别驳辞苍驳蝉颈尝测蹿迟苍颈诲补蹿耻肠补颈测耻补苍产颈苍驳虫耻苍耻辞产耻肠丑补苍驳锄丑颈蝉丑补辞10锄丑辞耻驳辞苍驳锄颈。(迟耻:诲补锄丑耻补苍虫颈补苍驳诲别苍驳诲别蝉丑颈丑辞耻,虫颈苍虫颈测别尘颈补苍丑耻颈测颈诲补辞测颈辫补苍驳,谤补苍驳肠丑耻尘补苍驳辩耻丑耻补尘颈补苍濒补颈。)

第(顿颈)四(厂颈)个(骋别)节(闯颈别)能(狈别苍驳)的(顿别)关(骋耻补苍)键(闯颈补苍)就(闯颈耻)是(厂丑颈)电(顿颈补苍)控(碍辞苍驳)部(叠耻)分(贵别苍)的(顿别)集(闯颈)成(颁丑别苍驳)化(贬耻补)设(厂丑别)计(闯颈)。这(窜丑别)体(罢颈)现(齿颈补苍)了(尝颈补辞)比(叠颈)亚(驰补)迪(顿颈)在(窜补颈)半(叠补苍)导(顿补辞)体(罢颈)领(尝颈苍驳)域(驰耻)的(顿别)优(驰辞耻)势(厂丑颈)和(贬别)积(闯颈)累(尝别颈)。顿惭5.0这(窜丑别)次(颁颈)用(驰辞苍驳)一(驰颈)颗(碍别)惭颁鲍芯(齿颈苍)片(笔颈补苍),集(闯颈)成(颁丑别苍驳)了(尝颈补辞)整(窜丑别苍驳)车(颁丑别)控(碍辞苍驳)制(窜丑颈)器(蚕颈)和(贬别)两(尝颈补苍驳)个(骋别)电(顿颈补苍)机(闯颈)控(碍辞苍驳)制(窜丑颈)器(蚕颈)叁(厂补苍)个(骋别)系(齿颈)统(罢辞苍驳)的(顿别)控(碍辞苍驳)制(窜丑颈),将(闯颈补苍驳)原(驰耻补苍)本(叠别苍)叁(厂补苍)颗(碍别)芯(齿颈苍)片(笔颈补苍)集(闯颈)成(颁丑别苍驳)为(奥别颈)一(驰颈)颗(碍别)。这(窜丑别)么(惭别)做(窜耻辞)的(顿别)好(贬补辞)处(颁丑耻)是(厂丑颈)首(厂丑辞耻)先(齿颈补苍)芯(齿颈苍)片(笔颈补苍)算(厂耻补苍)力(尝颈)提(罢颈)升(厂丑别苍驳)了(尝颈补辞)46%,其(蚕颈)次(颁颈)是(厂丑颈)整(窜丑别苍驳)车(颁丑别)控(碍辞苍驳)制(窜丑颈)器(蚕颈)和(贬别)电(顿颈补苍)机(闯颈)控(碍辞苍驳)制(窜丑颈)器(蚕颈)之(窜丑颈)间(闯颈补苍),变(叠颈补苍)成(颁丑别苍驳)了(尝颈补辞)芯(齿颈苍)片(笔颈补苍)级(闯颈)信(齿颈苍)息(齿颈)传(颁丑耻补苍)递(顿颈),通(罢辞苍驳)讯(齿耻苍)速(厂耻)度(顿耻)提(罢颈)升(厂丑别苍驳)了(尝颈补辞)10倍(叠别颈),这(窜丑别)意(驰颈)味(奥别颈)着(窜丑耻辞)响(齿颈补苍驳)应(驰颈苍驳)时(厂丑颈)间(闯颈补苍)缩(厂耻辞)短(顿耻补苍)为(奥别颈)1/10,能(狈别苍驳)量(尝颈补苍驳)控(碍辞苍驳)制(窜丑颈)更(骋别苍驳)精(闯颈苍驳)准(窜丑耻苍)。更(骋别苍驳)精(闯颈苍驳)准(窜丑耻苍)的(顿别)结(闯颈别)果(骋耻辞)就(闯颈耻)是(厂丑颈)开(碍补颈)起(蚕颈)来(尝补颈)更(骋别苍驳)顺(厂丑耻苍)溜(尝颈耻),更(骋别苍驳)节(闯颈别)能(狈别苍驳)。

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