国产精品一线二线叁线精华液:为用户排除掉了不少混淆...
大港街道启动“星光爱海 志愿同行”便民服务市集
2025年01月08日，2024-06-20 11:34·车市白话
国产精品一线二线叁线精华液:为用户排除掉了不少混淆...
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飞补颈虫颈补苍驳谤别苍诲别丑耻补丑耻补苍尘别颈蝉丑耻辞飞补苍，濒颈诲补蝉丑补苍箩颈耻驳补苍诲补辞测颈锄丑别苍迟辞耻测耻苍尘耻虫耻补苍，测补苍辩颈补苍诲别箩颈苍驳虫颈补苍驳办补颈蝉丑颈产颈补苍诲别尘辞丑耻。迟补丑耻补苍驳濒颈补辞丑耻补苍驳迟辞耻，蝉丑颈迟耻产补辞肠丑颈辩颈苍驳虫颈苍驳，辩耻别蹿补虫颈补苍锄颈箩颈测颈箩颈苍驳虫颈补苍谤耻濒颈补辞丑别颈补苍锄丑颈锄丑辞苍驳。锄辞苍驳锄丑颈，蝉丑别丑耻颈虫耻测补辞飞辞尘别苍驳辞苍驳迟辞苍驳飞别颈丑耻辩颈驳辞苍驳锄丑别苍驳测耻补苍辩耻补苍。迟辞苍驳驳耻辞蹿补濒惫丑别诲补辞诲别诲别蝉丑耻补苍驳锄丑辞苍驳测耻别蝉丑耻，飞辞尘别苍办别测颈驳辞耻箩颈补苍测颈驳别驳别苍驳箩颈补丑别虫颈别、测辞耻虫耻诲别蝉丑别丑耻颈丑耻补苍箩颈苍驳。
李(尝颈)连(尝颈补苍)喜(齿颈)表(叠颈补辞)示(厂丑颈)，连(尝颈补苍)日(搁颈)来(尝补颈)，南(狈补苍)县(齿颈补苍)乌(奥耻)嘴(窜耻颈)乡(齿颈补苍驳)各(骋别)村(颁耻苍)防(贵补苍驳)汛(齿耻苍)人(搁别苍)员(驰耻补苍)日(搁颈)以(驰颈)继(闯颈)夜(驰别)工(骋辞苍驳)作(窜耻辞)在(窜补颈)一(驰颈)线(齿颈补苍)，驻(窜丑耻)守(厂丑辞耻)在(窜补颈)在(窜补颈)堤(顿颈)坝(叠补)，李(尝颈)连(尝颈补苍)喜(齿颈)看(碍补苍)在(窜补颈)眼(驰补苍)里(尝颈)，决(闯耻别)定(顿颈苍驳)要(驰补辞)回(贬耻颈)报(叠补辞)“党(顿补苍驳)恩(贰苍)”，便(叠颈补苍)立(尝颈)刻(碍别)与(驰耻)村(颁耻苍)支(窜丑颈)书(厂丑耻)赵(窜丑补辞)擎(蚕颈苍驳)天(罢颈补苍)联(尝颈补苍)系(齿颈)，表(叠颈补辞)达(顿补)要(驰补辞)加(闯颈补)入(搁耻)防(贵补苍驳)汛(齿耻苍)一(驰颈)线(齿颈补苍)以(驰颈)及(闯颈)捐(闯耻补苍)赠(窜别苍驳)物(奥耻)资(窜颈)的(顿别)意(驰颈)愿(驰耻补苍)。
hongbogufenpilugujiayidonggonggaocheng，jiezhimuqianbeijingAIchuangxinfunengzhongxinxiangmuyitourushijiyunying，xiangguanchanpinyufuwuchuyuceshituiguangjieduan。zigongsiyingboshukechuyuchuchuangshiqi，shangweichanshengyingyeshouruyulirun，gaixiangmukenengcunzaixinyewutuozhanfengxian、rencaifengxian、jishufengxian、guanlifengxiandengfengxian。gongsigujiajinqilianxuwugejiaoyirizhangting。duzaicewendu，dandaodishimeshiwendu？｜xianshuobadaoyuanchuang2020-01-29 07:43·fanpurujin，quanguozhongduogonggongchangsuoduzaibujianduandiceliangguowangrenqundetiwen。raner，shimeshiwendu？yigetixiyoumeiyouwendu？wendujidaodiceliangliaoshime？zhexiewentijibianzaizhuanyedewulijiaokeshuhezazhishangyeshiyuyanbuxiang。benkantefaciwen，gongcankao。zhuanwen ∣ caozexian（zhongkeyuanwuliyanjiusuoyanjiuyuan）yinshuiyuxinzhilengnuan，zuoyingrenzushiyanliang。－［tang］luoyin（1）wenduceliangdelishishikexuefazhanshidezuchengbufen……-Thomas D. McGeetiyao：ganzhilengreshishengmingbibeidenengli，yincilengregainiandechuxianyuanyuanzaoyurelixuezhemenxueke，yejiunanmianjiuchanbuqing。re、leng、huozaiyingwenwuliwenxianzhongduyouduozhongbiaoshu，erwenduyeshifeichangbuyizhengquelijiedewulixuejibengainianzhiyi。1、shishizongguanyanliangmangmangyuzhouzhongyiliweibuzudaodechenai——diqiu——shangdanshengliaoshengming。zhuyidaodiqiudepingjunwenduyuewei15°C，shengmingdewuzhijichuzhiyishishuiershuideninggudianwei0°C，yijishengmingzuoweiyigeyuanlipinghengtaidehaosantixixuyaobuduanhuodenengliangerdiqiudenengyuanshilaizitaiyangdefuzhaodengjigeshishi，jiukeyiduoshaolijieshengmingsuoxuanzedewenduchuangkou（bixuchuyuhuanjingwenqudegaoduan）yijiduilengnuandemingan（2）。keyishuoyiqieshengmingzuizhongyaodeganjuenenglishiduilengnuandeganzhi（duixuduogaojidongwulaishuo，shijuehuozhetingjueshibeixuanxiang），guoquzhongguorenshenzhijiangzhilengzhirekanzuoshiyigerenzuoweihaodepeiousuobibeidepinge。zaizhongwenyujingli，wenhe、wennuan、wenroudengtiejinwomentiwendecihuidurangrengandaofeichangwenzuo，zaiqitawenhuazhongdagaiyeyingruci，bijing“huanqiutongciliangre”（3）。lengredegainianzairentifayudezaoqijiuyinggaijianliqilailiao。geiyingyouerweinaiweifan，yikaishiyoudarenzhangwolengre，erhoujiuyaojiaohaizizijimingbailengre。shushidewendu，yinggaishitiwenfujinbudadefanwei，tashouxianshishenglidexuyao，qihoumanmanchengliaoxinlidexuqiu。womenyigerenyishengzhongzuixuyaolijiedexianxiangyexujiushishitaiyanliang，renqinglengnuan！renleiziyumeizhongzouguolai，zaiqikexuenulizhongziranhuijianghendadejinglifangzailijielengnuanxianxiangshang。yushi，womenfazhanliaorexue、relixue，erzheqizhongyaolijiehelianghuadeyigezhongyaogainianshilengrechengdu，jiwendu。2、hunluandezimianlengreshiwomenshentideganjue，yinciwomenguanyulengrexianxiangxiangguandecihuiyidingbirelixuezhemenkexuechuxiandezao，yejiurongyixiangxiangcunzaimouxiegainianshangdejiazabuqing。zaikaolvdaoyingyudefuzalaiyuan，yijirelixuezaide、fa、yingjihutongshifazhandelishixianshi，keyixiangjianyingwenkejiwenxianzhongyureyouguandecihuihuiyouxuduobutongdemianmu。shouxian，relixueguanzhudejibenliangshireliang（liàng），shinengliangdeyizhongteshuxingshi。zhongwenlirerujinjishijutidemingci（rongjiere），yeshichouxiangmingcidaibiao“rede”zhezhongganjue、zhejianshi（lvyoure），yeshixingrongci（rexinchang）；xiangyingdi，deyuli“rede”shiheiβ，erjutimingcire，die W?rme，duiyingdexingrongciqueshiwennuan，warm；yingyuli“rede”yici，hot，laizideyuheiβ，danshicixingbianhuafengfu：“rede”zhezhongganjue、zhejianshiweihotness，reliangzeshiheat。deyuxingrongciwarmchuanruyingyuhou，qiduiyingdemingciwarmness，shiwennuandeganjue，quemeiyoureliangdeyisi。hanyukejimingcizhongshejiredehuanyourejie（liejie）deshuofa，shiduipyrolysis defanyi。Pyros laizixilayuπ?ρо?，shihuodeyisi。tongyangyuhuotongyuandezihuanyoufever (fare、fashao) ，deyuwei das Fieber。ruguozhidaozhongwende“re”zi，conghuo，shixingshengci，zheyidianjiuhenhaolijie。rexuezuoweiyimenxuekezaideyuliweiW?rmetheorie，yingwenweiheat theory，ciweirelixuedeqianshen。relixue，thermodynamics （thermo+dynamic），laizixilayu。danshi，xilayuθερμ?? (thermos) deyisiqiaqiashi“wende”，xingrongci“rede”shiκαντ?? （kantos）heζεστ?? (zestos)。shuodaoreliang，yingwenzhongyeyongcalorie (hanyuzhijieyinyikaluli，huogancui“ka”)，tanlunyingyangbaojian、yundongsushenderenxihuanyong“kaluli”daibiaoreliang。Caloriezhegecilaiziladingyucalere，yisishi to be warm， glow，glow with heat。Glow with heat （reerfaguang） jiushibaichidengdeyuanli，houwenwomenhuikandaozhegewentizaijindaiwulixuezhongjuzuqingzhongdediwei。Caloriezaixilayuzhongyeshi“rede”yisi，birurefusheti（radiator），xilawenjiushiσ?μα καλоριφ?ρ (caloric body)。zailuomanyuzudeyuyanzhong，“rede”yiciduhecaloriexiangfangfo，ruzhejuxibanyayu“La temperatura es una magnitud referida a las nociones comunes de calor o frío（wendushiduliangrehuolengdeliang）”zhongdecalor。weiliaobiaozhenglengredechengdu（degree of hotness or coldness），renmenyinruliaotemperaturedegainian。lengredechengdubushireduyebushilengdu，ershiwendu，rutemperaturedebenyi。Temperaturedetongyuandongcitemperweidiaohedeyisi，ru to temper critism with reason （pipingzhongjiarushuoli），to temper paint with oil（yongyoudiaoqi）。xingrongcitemperatedeyisishiwenhede，rua temperate reply （wenhededafu），a temperate climate (wenhedeqihou），dengdeng。Temperateruozhilengrechengdu，qijinyiciyou tepid、mild helukewarm （shushi、zuoyi）。shashibiyazuizhumingdeshisixingshi“Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?”deqishiliangju：Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate.（4）qizhongdetemperate zhidejiushihaopiqi、wenshun、wenwandeyisi。ciwai，ladingwentemperaturaebenyiyoubuguofendeyisi，biruguanyumeizhibiaozhundelengbingbingdeyangeduichengxingyuqishuoshiyaodadaodebiaozhun，wuningshuoshiyizhongzaiqijichushangyaopianlidebiaozhun：“danzhepianlibukeguofen（temperaturae），suoweizaijueduideduichengxingzhongyoumudedi、toutoudisairuyixiexiweidebianhua”[1]。redefanyicishileng。guanyuleng，suiranyingwendeleng，cold、coldness，yezaiyingwenwuliwenxianzhongshichangjiandao，danhenduoshihouyongdaodeshiqitaxingshideci。birurefrigerator（bingxiang）、refrigerating machine（zhilengji），zhelideleng，fri，laiziladingyuxi，fayuxingrongciwei froid，xibanyayuweifrío。xiangyingdi，lengzaixilayuzhongweiκρ?о?（cryos），shijihanleng（chilly）deyisi，danshizaixiandaiwulixuewenxianzhongjihanlengyebuzuyishuoqingchutashiduomedelengliao。Cryo chuxianzaicryostat（diwenhengwenqi）、cryopump (lengningbeng) dengcihuizhong，zhelidelengkeshiyouyedanhuoyehaiweichide，cryogenic refrigeratorlidewenduyuanbijiazhongbingxianglidegengdi。youshiweiliaoyousuoqubie，renmenzaibiaoda“lengde”gainianshihuixuanzebutongciyuandeci，rulengyuanziwuliyingwenweiultracold atomic physics，diwenwulizexiechenglow-temperature physics，《diwenwuli》zazhiyinweiyaoxiandehenyouxuewen，huanyaoxiechengladingwen physica temperaturae humilis。zailiangreshebeishang，wenziyeshibijiaohunluan。Thermosshi“wende”，thermometer shiliangwendeqicai，hanyiwenduji；danhuanyouyigeciweithermoscope，anshuoyeshiwenduji，danyourenweiliaoyishiqubiejiangzhiyiweiliangwenqi、cewenqi。qishi，zhelidequbieshi，meterdebenyishiceliang，qiangdiaokedu；scopedebenyishikan，daiscopedeceliangqicaiqiangdiaodeshiguancha，kenengbingbuyaoqiuyidingluoshidaoyigeshuzhi。dangranzhehuayebudui，rujinbianbugedifangliugandeshuzishihongwaithermoscopejiushijiandandibengchuyigeshuzi。xianran，renleizhizaodediyigeliangwenqicaizhinengshithermoscope，yinweitahuanmeiyoukedu。guanyumeteryuscope，yijimetry yuscopyzhijiandexiweichabie，qingcanyuebizheciqiandetaolun[2]。ciwai，huanyouyileijinsidiliyongheitifushexingzhidewendujipyrometer，yourenjiangzhifanyichenggaowenji。zhegefanyiyoudianguo，yinweiyouxiepyrometeryezhishiyonglaijianshirenleidetiwenbianhua（jianxiawen）。celiangreliangdeshebeishicalorimeter，hanyiliangreji，yongyucedinghuaxuefanying、zhuangtaibianhuahuorongjieguochengsuochanshengdereliang。3、wendudewuliwendushiwulixuezhongqigejibenliangzhiyi，danweiwei Kelvin，yiyingguowulixuejia William Thomsondeguanjue，ji Lord Kelvin，mingming。zaixuduowulixueshengdetounaoli，wendushigezuijibendewuliliang，yigekeceliangliang。1994nianxiajiyigewuliaodexiawu，bizhezaideguoKaiserslauterndaxuewulixitushuguanfanyueyibenmingwei《Heat Transfer》deshushi，huranmingbaiwendushibukeceliangde。tadesuoweiceliangduyaoyilaiyigewomenweimingshuode、youshishenzhishigenbenbuzhidaodemougewulixuedinglv，qieceliangdeshiqitadekeceliangwuliliang。erjibianbuzhidaonagedinglvwomenyirannenggouzhizaowendujibingjicizhubudijianliqirelixue，zeshizaibizheweizhongguokexueyuanyanjiushengyuanzhunbei2009shuqikechengshicairenshidaozheyidiande，cishibizhezaidaxueheyanjiusuoyijinghunliao27geniantou。youyuwendushiduidalizishutixidepinghengtaiyansheng（emergent）xingzhizuotongjimiaoshushicainengyinjinlaideyigeliang，bizheyoushishenzhixiangshuowendujiubushigewulideliang；yanjiushaotiwentidewulixuejiajibenshangshifashaodeshihoucaiconghushidezuilitingdaozhegecide。errelixuezhihuisenandong，duobanshiyinweizhexieyinggaimingquezhichueryouxianyourenzhichudeshishi。chengruMcGeezhichudenayang，“wendushizuinanqingxidingyidewuzhideyibanxingzhi（The concept of temperature has been the most difficult of the common properties of matter to define clearly）”[3]。dangwomenpingjieshentiganzhilengrecongerduihuanjingdewenduzuochupanduanshi，womengengduodeshizaitanlunyigechuanrexuedewenti。reliuliuxiangwomendeshenti，womenganjueshirede，womenjiuduanyanwaijiewendugao；reliuziwomenshentiliuchu，womenganjueshilengde，womenjiuduanyanwaijiewendudi。buguozhegeganjuebuzuyiyaoqiuwaijieyouwulishangyangedingyidewendu，qiereliudeqiangdubixubeixianzhizaiyigehenxiaodefanwei，guodadezhuruheliuchudereliudukenengsunhuaiwomendeganjueqiguan，congerdechuhunluandepanduan。dangrenti，birujiao，beidongdefeichanglihaishi，yehuiyouredeganjue，queqiedishuoshimayangdeganjue，qienazhongmayangdeganjuebushizhengtixingde，ershirutongdierleichaodaotineidecitongwoxuan，huozhebandaotijingtilideweicuoxiannayangdefenbu。youshi，jibianshichuyutongyihuanjingzhongdelianggewuti，jiashedubiwomendeshouleng，qizhongxishoureliangkuaidewuti，birujinshu，yehuigeiwomengenglengdeganjue。yejiushishuowomendeshouzheyangdewendujishiyikaoreliufangxiangshenhuoreliudesulvlaipanduanlengnuande。yiqieganzhiwendudeqijian，dukenengcunzaileisidewenti，zhishaotabunengbangzhuceliangzheduanyandaicetixiyouwanhaodingyidewendu。relixuegaosuwomen，zhenduiyigechuyupinghengtaidetixi，womencainengdingyiqiwenduwei，jiwendushiyoutixizailizishu、tijiyijiqitaguangyanliangdubaochibubiandeqiantixiadezuo－neinengguanxijuedingde。zitongjilixuedeguandiankanlai，zhegeguanxishijiben（fundamental）de。suiran，wendukeyizuoweiwutilengrechengdudeduliang（temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body），danlengre（reliudefangxianghesulv）queshigengjibende，qiebubaozhengyigewanhaodingyidewendudecunzai。4、wenduceliangdeluojijichuwenduceliangshejifuzadewulixianxiang。ruheceliangwendu，suiranweidedaochongfenqiangdiao，yesuanshiyimenxuewen（thermometry），erqieshiyimenfuzade、kunnandexuewen。renhechangshiceliangwenduderenduyinggaiqingchudiliaojiecewendeyuanliyijimanzutedingmudesuocaiyongzhijuticewenfangfa[3]。wenduceliangdeluojijichushirelixuedilingdinglv: “ruotixiAheBfenbietongtixiCchuyurepingheng，zeAheBzhijianyechuyurepingheng。” jushuogaidinglvshi1920nianyouR. H. Fowlertichude，congshijianshangkan，dilingdinglvchuxianwanyixie，suanshiduirelixuesandadinglvdebuchong。jiranshibuchong，shuomingyouqibiyao，bingbushiruzimianshangnayangkanqilaijihushifeihua。suoweiderepingheng，wodelijieshijiliangtixijiandanweishijiannei、qiebuguanduochangshijianjiangeneidejingjiaohuanreliangweiling。lianggetixifenbietongdisangetixichuyurepingheng，xijieshangquekeyishiyibutongdechuanrefangshi，yibutongdedanxiangnengliujiaohuanzhuoreneng（tu1）。zheyang，repinghengruguoyongreliangjiaohuandecihuilaimiaoshudehua，jiutaibujingjiliao。relixuedilingdinglvshouxianbiaomingciwentikeyijinyibuyinxiangshenru，dingyiyigexindebiaozhengrepinghengdewuliliang，zhejiushiwendu（5）。zhecaishidilingdinglvdeguanjian。youliaozhegeluojijichu，wendugainiandeyinrujiuxiandeshunlichengzhangliao，wendujideshiyongjiudedaoliaoyuanlishangdebaozhang（yigecewenwuzhitongdaicetixijianliliaorepingheng，jiasheciguochengjiaohuandereliangyudaicetixidezongreliangxiangbikehuluebuji，zegenjuceliangcewenwuzhimougewuliliangsuohuansuandedaodewenduzhikekanzuoshidaicetixidewendu。dangran，youxiewendujibuxuyaohedaicetixijianlirepingheng），erqieduilianggeduliderelixuetixi，keyitongguocewenguochengjianliqiwendudebijiaoerwuxuyaoqiutamenzhijianjianliredejiaoliu。relixuedilingdinglvtongqitadilingdinglvyiyangzhuzhongdedushiweigaixuekedaxiajianshideluojijichu。tu1 relixuedilingdinglvtushi，zhuyibutongtixizhijianderepinghengxijieshangdechayi。5、wendujiyuwenbiaowomenyoulengredeganjue，youjianglengrelianghuadexuqiu，wentishiruhejiangwendulianghua，zhuyilengreshiganjueerfeishijueshangdepanduan。ruguoyaojianglengrelianghuaweikeyiyanshuodeshiwu，jiuxuyaoyigejianglengrezhuanhuanchengshijuexiaoguodewujian，jiwenduji。1594nian，zuoliluedudaoliaoHerodeshougao“Penumatics” （chengshuyugongyuanqianyishiji），congerfamingliaoliyongqitiyali（tiji）suiwendugaibiandeyuanli、youyizhongyetideshengjianglaixianshilengrechengdudethermoscope（tu2）。rujinshimianshangdewanjuaiqingwendujijiushiliyongdezhegeyuanli。lingyouwenxianshuozuolilue1600nianzuoyoufamingdethermoscopeshizheyangdezhuangzhi：mifengdeboliguanneizhuruyidingliangdetoumingyeti，qizhongjinpaozhuobizhongbutongdexiaowujian。dangwendushenggao（xiajiang）shi，yetidemiduhuijianxiao（zengjia），xiaowujiandexuanfuweizhijiuyoubiandong （tu2）。tu2 yuanshidethermoscopes。zuotuzhongliyongdeshiqiyasuiwendudebianhua，guanchadeshiyetideshengjiang；youtuzhongliyongdeshiyetimidusuiwendudebianhua，guanchadeshigutixuanfuwudeshengjiang。jinyoushijueshangdechongjishibugoude，zhiyoushixianliaoduiwendudeculueceliangyihou，wendudegainiancainenggoubeidingyi（……Only after crude methods of temperature measurement were developed could the concept of temperature really be defined!）[3]。zheshikexuefazhandeyigeyouqufanli，yinzhengliaoguanyukexueshiyisouxingshizaidahaishangdechuan、erwomenzhinengzaizhesouchuanshangduitajinxingxiubudebiyu。zaizhengquedilijiewenduzhiqian，womenyijingyouliaolianghuawendudenuliheshijian。yaodedaolianghuadewendu，jiuyaojiejueruhelianghuayijiweishimekeyizheyanglianghuadewenti，suiranlijiehouyidianshi“mahoupao”shide。zairelixueshishang，cewenshicongceliangliwomendetiwenbutaiyuandewendukaishide， qiedushicaiyongxianxingwenbiao，jijiasheceliangyilaidewuliliang（huoxianxiang），ruqi、ye、gutiderezhanglengsuo（6），suiwenduzaiganxingqudefanweineishixianxingbianhuade。zheyangduilianggecankaodianfuzhijiuzuyiquedingyitaowenbiaohewenduji。cong1744niandao1954nian，0°C（7）beixuanweishuideninggudian，er100°C shishuidefeidian（xiguanxingdebaifenzhisiwei，suoyishendukexuexingqianqueyidian），dangranshizaiyigedaqiya（zhuyi，shiaodiliweiyenadedaqiya！）xiadeninggudianhefeidian（tu3）。tu3 shuideninggudian（bingshuigongcun）hefeidianfenbiebeidingyiwei0 °Che100 °C。wendushilengrechengdudebiaozheng，erwutizhijianlengrechengdudechabietixianzairejiechushidenengliushouyi，yincixiangbiyuwenduzhisuobiaoshideguanxi，reliucaishigengjibende。ruowomenjiangxianghuzhijianrepinghengdexitongguiweiyigelei，chuyubutongdexitongleianrejiechushifashengnengliangliudefangxiangpaixu，nengliangliudefangxiangzhixiangwendudidetixi。cishi，renhenengzhengquedigeichuxitongleishunxudewendubiaoqiandushiwulishanghaodewenbiao (temperature scale)（tu4）。dangran，tongshangshuwomencaiyongdezhishiheyujubuwenqudeyouxianwenbiao(temperature standard) butong，womenzhelitaolundeshiduiwenduquanjushangdebiaoduwenti。duiyuwenbiaodexuanzelaishuo，geichuzhengquedexitongleixulie（nengliufangxiang）shidiyiweide，erquelijutideshuzhishidierweide。yaozuodaohouyidianhuanxuyaoyilaiqitadewulishishihuoguilv；qiegenjubutongguilvdingchudewenbiao（scale，qingbuyaohuntongyutaolunsheshiwenbiaotonghuashiwenbiaobutongshisuoshejidewendustandards），xianghuzhijiandebianhuanguanxiyibanshifeixianxingde。zheyangdewenbiaohenduo，danwomenqiwangyigejuyoumouzhong“juedui”yiyidewenbiao，fangbian、huozheshuoliyuwulixuehuodeyigeziqiademianmaoshiwomenduizheyangdewenbiaodeqidai[4]。zheyangdewenbiaoyingshijiben（fundamental）de，jiceliangwendushisuoxuanqudeceliangliangduiwendudeyilaiguanxizhishejijibenwulichangshuerbubaohanrenyidexiaozhunchangshu[3]。cishi，taolunyixiashijianhewendudeyigegongtongdecemianshiyouqude。zaiyongyouyigekejieshoudewendulilunzhiqian，womendewenbiaohewendujishihunluande；zaiwomennengjianliqikejieshoudeshijianlilunzhiqian，yemeiyoujuyoujibenshibiaodejishiqi。zaitaoluntadeguangyixiangduilunshi，aiyinsitanyongshizaide、jingdiande“michi”、“shizhong”he“guanchazhe”denggainian，zheshitazuoyuchangshidedifang。zheyangdebiaoshuyoulishideyinyou，queshiwudaoxingde（xuduorendexiangduilunshuipingyongyuandibeidinggezai“michi”、“shizhong”denggainianshangliao），guweirensuozuobing[5]。6、jueduiwenduyujueduiwenbiaosuoweidewenduceliang，yizhishiyongmouzhongwuzhitixidemougewuliliang，birushuiyinwendujizhongshuiyinzhudegaodu，laibiaozhengwendude，qiqiantitiaojianshigaiwuliliangzaigeidingdewenquneisuiwendudandiaodibianhua （bucunzainengceliangsuoyouwendudewenduji）。dandandiaoxingbuzuyiquedingduibianhuadedingliangmiaoshu，gulishishangzengchuxianduozhongyilaibutongwuzhidebutongwulixingzhidezhenduibutongwenqudewenduji，zengyinrubutongdejingyanwenbiao[3]。fenluandewenbiaofanyingdeshiduiwendufenluanderenshihedingyi，zheshuomingguanyuwenduyidingyoumouxieshenkedewuliwomenhuanmeiyoubawo。relixuefazhanshishangyinrudejingyanwenbiaosuirandumanzuliaosuocaiyongdewuliliangzaigongzuofanweineisuiwendudandiaobianhuadeyaoqiu，danwuliliangsuiwendubianhuadedingliangguanxidequelixianranyingfuwuyujianliyigeziqiaderelixuetixi；napajinshiweiliaocewendetongyi， yexuyaoyigeduliyujutiwuliliangdewenbiao，shidebutongdewendujikexiangduiyuyigetongyide、zuihaoshishiyongyusuoyoukenengchuxianwenduzhidewulitixi（yuanli）jiayixiaozhun。1703nian，faguorenamengdong（Guillaume Amontons） faxianjiangdiwendushi，pingzilideqitiyaliyexiajiang。wenduyuedi，yaliyuedi。danqiyabukenengweifu，zeanzhaolixiangqitidezhuangtaifangcheng，（anzhaolixiangqitifangchengdingyide）wendujiangdaolingyejiubunengjiangliao。amengdongtuicezhegewenduzai－240℃ 。zheshijueduiwendudezaoqigainian。houlai，kaierwenjueshiyinruliaojueduiwenbiao，jitixisuochudewenduyingzheyangqu1900nian，pulangketongguocaicedezuoyuneinengdeguanxi，geichuliao（lixiangde！）heitifushegongshi，jinengliangpumiduduiwendudeyilaiguanxi，[6]。zhegegongshidangranshiyangedeshuxuebiaoda，duiyingyigewendudebuzaijiandandishigeshuzhi，ershiyigefenbuhanshu。tongshangshujueduiwendudingyiyiyang，zheliwendudequedinghuanshitongguonengliangceliangshixiande。duiyujutideyigefusheti，biruyuzhou（9），tadefushenengliangmidupugujibushixiangzhegeshuxuegongshinamewanmei，danzhongyaodetezheng（features）quebuhuiyoutaidadepianli（tu6）。zheyang，womenzhiyaojiang quxianmeihuachengfuheshangshugongshidexingshi，jiunengdingyiyigejueduiwendu。yuzhoubeijingfushe、xingtiwendujiushizheyangquedingde。duiheitifushegongshidejinsidingyiliaojueduiwendu，huozheshuoheitifushelilunweiwomentigongliaoyigejueduiwendujideshuxuejichu，celiangheitifushepudeshebeijiuchengliaopushidewenduji，qiezhezhongjueduiwendujishiyuanchengde。liyongciyuanlidejueduiwendujizhiyi，daxingshediantianwenwangyuanjing (tu6)，weitiantiwuli、yuzhouxue、yinlililundeyanjiutigongliaojudadebangzhu。tu6 jueduiwendujihetadelixiangceliangjieguo，jimanzupulangkegongshidefusheqiangdusuibochang（huozhepinlv）debianhua。zhuyi，youtuzhongdepunapajingguomubiaozhixiangdemeihua，yeshibuwanzhengde。youcidelaidesuoweiyuzhoubeijingwenduwei2.725 K, tanameyishuo，ninameyiting。daxingshediantianwenwangyuanjingzheyangdejueduiwendujitaiangguiliao，muqianyiyouduozhongbutaiyangede—zhicehenzhaifanweineidebopu，huozheqiyilaidepanjuhuojisuanyebuyange—jueduiwendujigongshiyanshiherichangshenghuozhongshiyong。zheleiwendujiyingwenweipyrometer。liru，youyizhongdengsixiaoshiguangxuecewenyi（the disappearing filament optical pyrometer）：tongguoyigehongse（jihudanse）delvguangchuangkoujiangdaicedebaichiguangyuanheyiqineizhidedengsi（xiaozhunguode）fachudefusheyiqibijiao，dangfusheyuandeqiangduhedengsideqiangduyiyangshi，dengsidexiangxiaoshiliao，youcikeyipanduanfusheyuandewendujiushineizhidengsidedangqianwendu。zheleiwendujiyibanyongyujiejin1000°Cdegaowenceliang，wuchajiaoda。huanyouyileicelianghongwaiboduanfashepuhuofashelv（emissivity）dehongwaicewenyi，yingwenweiinfrared thermometerhuoinfrared radiation pyrometer huo radiometer，youyuqishuchushibengchuyigebiaoshiwendudeshuzi，yinciyejiaoinfrared thermoscope （tu7）。youyuemissivity yilaiyuwutidewendu，yeyilaiyuwutibiaomiandezhuangkuang，yincizheleiwendujixuyaoyangexiaozhun。tu7 shuzishihongwaithermometer huozhethermoscopehuozhepyrometer。liangwenbianchengliaozhijieduquyiqixianshichudeshuzi。7、wenduceliangdejiaxiangqianshuwoyijingchanming，wenduzuoweiyigetongjixingzhideqiangduliang，shibukeyibeizhijieceliangde。suoweidewenduceliang，shitongguoduiqita（guangyan）wuliliang（shoureyingxiang）deceliangdeyishixiande。qitadewulixianxiangbeidangzuowendudezhibiao，suodedewenduzhikenenghuiyinweimouxieshigudedaobujingquede、shenzhicuowudejieguo。shouxianyaozhuyideyidianshi，wuzhitixishouraodonghoudadaoxindewenduzhuangtaikenengshixuyaomougetezhengshijiande，eryigefanyinghenkuaidecewenzhuangzhi，birudianzuwenduji（resistor thermometer），huishunjianjiugeichuyigewenduzhierbuguantixishichuyushimezhuangtai。xuduoyanjiuxiangbiandewenzhanggeichudejieguozhisuoyichurujiaoda，wohuaiyiyucewenyouguan。qitadecuowugenyuanbaokuocewendiantongwenduji（birureouwenduji）detantousuozaidibingbushiyuanlaishedingdedidian，huozhezhuanhuanhuoxianshibufendedianluchuliaowenti（birureshuiqixianshiwendudedianluyinweishuigouguozaodiliangdengzhishishuikailiao），dengdeng。ruguorendingyouguomaoqipaojiudaibiaogaowendehuahuanyoushoupiandekeneng（cishirendechangshibanyanliaowendujidejiaose），yinweijiarudiwenfenjieqihuadewuzhi，birupengsha，henrongyizaidiwenxiajiurangyouguofantengbuyi。jiushehuiliumangdouhen，jiuyourenyongguozhezhaobiaoyanxiayouguo。8、fuwendu“yubujingrensibuxiu”bingbushishirenteyoudetaidu。wulixuejiamenweiliaoboqubuxiudemingsheng， zaitichuxingainiandeshihouyiyangshichuyujingren。birurelixuedinglvqiangdiaoliaojueduiwendulingdushibukenengdadaode，danruguozuodadaoliaone，youhuozherangninwuyiweibitahuandine，nagaishiduomehongdongya。“fuwendu”jiushizheyangdeyigegainian。peishangxiangzheyangdejuzi“fuwendudetixibirenhe zhengwendutixidure（Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than any system with a positive temperature）”，jianzhitaihouxiandailiao。qishi，suoweidefuwendushejideshijiguanggongzuojiezhihuozhecichangzhongfenliedehezixuanzheyangdejinyoujigenengji（shijishangshiliangge）detixi，yinweiwaizaibengpu（pumping）deyuanyin，tixizhongdegaonengjiyijiaodadebilibeizhanju，jichuxianlizishufanzhuan（population inversion）。suoyi，ruguoyingyaoyongboerzimanfenbuzhileidemiaoshu，jirendingmidusuanfuρyoushigeichudehua，H shitixidehamierdunsuanfu，zeTyingqufuzhi。zhuyidaolizishufanzhuanshiyouwaijiedebengpuhenengjidexingzhi，birunengjijiandeshuaibiansulv，suogongtongjuedingde，jiashetixiyousangenengjidehua，anzhaoshangshudingyishenzhinengdedaosangebutongdefuwendu。zhedangranyoudianzuozuo。erruojiangfuwenduxiandingzailiangnengjitixidehua，zhijieyongzhanjuzhuangtaimiaoshujiuxingliao，yinruyigewenducanshuchuliaoxinwenxiaoyingyiwaihuannengyoushimeyichu？leisifuwenduzhileidegainianwulixueshanghuanyouyixie，duzhezhujunyudaoshibufangyixiaozhizhi。9、duodanyuanrelixuetixidewenduruoyigetixisuiranqizhengtishangbushichuyurepinghengtai，ziranyongdanyiwenducanshumiaoshushibuqiadangde，danzuchengtadezixitongqueshigezijinsidichuyupinghengtai，zeduizheyangdetixikeyizhenduizixitongdingyichuyizuwendulaibiaozhengqirelixuetexing。pinghengtaidedengliziti，ruguobushitaiyangedehua，huanyouyuanyanghuoguo （tu8），jiushizheyangderelixuetixi。duipinghengtaidengliziti，keyigenjulizinengliangfenbuhedianzinengliangfenbufenbiedingyiliziwenduhedianziwendu。ruguoyeyongKelvinwenbiaodehua，yibanqitideliziwendu，jinsidikekanzuoshizhudaodenglizititonghuanjingjiaohuanreliangdecanshu，bingbubishiwengaoduoshao。danshi，dianziwenduyaogaodeduo，yibanzai10^5Kyishang，zheyangdedenglizitibeichengweinon-thermal plasma；ruoshidenglizitineidianzihelizishichuyurepingheng de，zeshithermal-plasma。Non-thermal plasma yourenjiangzhifanyiweifeiredengliziti，yourenzesuishoushiyongdiwendenglizitizhegeyiming。liyongjiguangdenggengjuxuanzexingdelihuagongjukeyishideqitizhongzhongxingyuanzihelizidewendubaochihendi，biruweichizai1Kwendudeshuiping，zheyangdedenglizitibeichengweicold plasma huoultra-cold plasma.tu8 yuanyanghuoguoheqitifangdian，dianxingdejuyoulianggejinsirepinghengzixitongderelixuetixi。10、jie shu yuwenduzuoweiyigetongjicanshu，tayuqidingyisuoyilaidetongjiyiqicaigouchengduitixidatishangdekexuemiaoshu。kandaoyigewenduzhi，yaobatatongguanliandewuliliangdefenbulianxiqilai，zheyeshidianziwenduchangchangyongnengliangdanweigeichudedaoli。duiyuzhengtishangyanzhongfenhuade、feipinghengdetixi，jiandandigeichuyilaimougezhengtixingzhi (refushedeqiangdu；mougedianzuzhishenqizhongsuobiaoxiandedianzuzhi) cuowudihuansuanchulaidewenduzhiqishishiwudaoxingde。zhezhengruduipinfuyanzhongfenhuadeshehui，“suanshupingjun”houdegongzishuipinghuoxiaofeizengchangsuduzhihuiyangaishehuidezhenshi，zhezhongxuewendechuxianjikenengshiyinweimouleixuezhexueshugongdizhibuzu，gengkenengshiyinweigaileixuezhexianshenreqingzhiguotou。benwenguanyuwendudetaolunjibenshangshijishucengmiande，cishiwotebiexiangzhongwenyiqiandeyijuhua，jiguanyurenheyigewulixuegainianduyoutaiduowobudongdeneirong。qishiwendushiwulixuezuiguanjiandejibengainianzhiyi，zailiangzichanglun、chouxiangdaishudecengcishangtaolunwenduhuokechujiwenduneihandepimao。biru，jueduilingdushibukedadaode，danjueduilingdudezhuangtaiquebeijiasheshicunzaide，qieshiliangzichanglunchuligutiyijiqitawuliwentishideqidian，beidangchengmouzhongyiyishangdezhenkongtai。zhegechulifangshiyinqidebujinjinshizhexuedezhenglun，huanshejiyixiejibenwuliliangdeshencenglianxi。zhegehuatishuitaishen，yuanchaobizhenenglizhiwai。weimianduzhezhujunyiweiwogunongxuanxu，tezhaichaoyijugongxinshang：“Temperature is the only fundamental way of getting around the problem of relativity of motion (wendushijiejueyundongxiangduixingnantideweiyidegenbenchulu)。”zenmeyang，lingrenjingchahu？buzhui1. guanyuciwen，liujixinglaoshifalaijijupinglun，zhaoluruxia：zhepianwenzhangyouqu，shiwoxiangqiyijianwangshi。jide1959nianbeijingdaxuewulixililunwulijiaoyanshizengxiangyingdangdehaozhaokaizhanliaoduiwangzhuxisuozhu《relixue》depipan，pipangaishu“xuanyangweixinzhuyi”，“liluntuolishiji”dengdeng。pipanwangxiansheng“xuanyangweixinzhuyi”dezhengjuzhiyishitazaigaishuxulunzhongdediyiduanhua：“rexuezheyimenkexueqiyuanyurenleiduiyureyulengxianxiangdebenzhidezhuiqiu。youyuzaiyoushizhiqianrenleiyijingfamingliaohuo，womenkeyixiangxiangdao，zhuiqiureyulengdebenzhideqitukenengshirenleizuichuduiziranjiefazedezhuiqiuzhiyi。”lingrenjingpeideshi，wangzhuxixianshengbingweizaizhezhongpipanmianqianhoutui，zai1960nian1yuechubandegaishudierbanzhong，suiranzengbu、xiudingliaobushaoneirong，shangyindenaduanhuajingyiziweigai，zhaoyangfangzaixulundiyiduan。caozexiankenengbuzhicishi（nashitakenenghuanmeiyouchushengba？），danzhepianwenzhangtixianliaowangxianshengzheduanhuadejingshen，suoyiwojuedeyouqu，zhenlikanlaishipibudaode。wenzhongduiyu “fuwendu”tifadefengciwaku，kenengtaiguo，gujidangshiPurcelldengrentichuzhegegainianshi，bingfeiyao“yubujingrensibuxiu”，ershiBoltzmannfenbuzhishushangquliaofuhao，bidetamenshuochu“fuwendubizhengwendugengre”dehualai。dancaoshizhishuoyeyouxiedaoli，bieyoufengge，liudaiyinqitaolunyehao。zuozhezhu：ruguozhitaolunlianggenengjishangdezhanjushu，jiumeiyoushimefenbudewenti Boltzmannfenbuzhezhongzuoweigaowenjinsidefenbuhanshu，qishejidenengjishumuyinggaishihongguandashumude。erduiyuluegaoyujueduiwendulingdudefeimizitixi（bosezitixi），zezaifeiminengji（zuidinengji）zhishangzhiyoushaoshujigenengjibeizhanju，kongpabuzuyigeichuyigekexindefenbuhanshu。fanguolai，duiyingshaoshujigelizizhanjulingxingdejigenengji，zeyijufeimitongjihuobosetongjigeichudesuoweiwendu，benrenyujian，payeshikeyide。zhushi（1）luoyinkesuanshenzhirenjianlengnuan， yiju“woweichengmingjunweijia，suanlaidushibururen”daochugujinduoshaorendezhuixinzhitong。－bizhezhu（2）xuduodongwuweiliaozhaoxunwenduheshidewaibuhuanjingbudebumeinianduzuochangjulideqianzuo。renleidecelueshifazhanchuliaoqunuanhechengliangdekexueyujishu。relixuehediandonglixuenenghenhaodijieshiquyanfushixianxiang，yinciyeyinggaishishehuixuedelilunjichu。－bizhezhu（3）yuchumaozedong《niannujiao. kunlun》，zuoyu1935nian。－bizhezhu（4）dayishi：kefoujiangnibizuoqinglangdexiari？niqueshigengjiaxiuli、wenwan！cishiliuchuandehanyibeichengweizaichuangzuo，yiyufanyiwuguan。－bizhezhu。（5）weiliaogeizhongxueshengjiangqingchurelixuedilingdinglvshizhongyaodedinglverbushifeihua，wojuliaozheyangyigelizi：ruonitonglianggetongxuefenbiezaijiaowangzhongzaicaiwufangmianjibenshangshiyoulaiyouwangde（caiwuwanglaikeyibiaoxianweisongxiaolipin、jieqian、qingkedengdengbutongfangshi）， jiyiduanshijianneiwanglaidecaiwuruoduhuansuanchengqiandehuashuiyebukuiqianshui， namewomenkeyibuguanjutijiaowangdexijieeryinruyigexindegainian，jiajing，laimiaoshudajiadejiatingjingjiqingkuang。womenhuishuo，ruonidejiajinghenalianggetongxuedejiajingchabuduo，zenalianggetongxuedejiajingxiangbiqilaiyechabuduo。yongjiajinggainiansuozuodemiaoshubiluoliexiaopengyouzhijianjiaowangdexijiegengjingji、gengyoubiaoxianli、gengnengzhuazhuwentideshizhi。zhejiushirelixuedilingdinglvzheleikansifeihuadedinglvzhiweilisuozai。－bizhezhu。（6）youshaoshuwuzhitixizaimouxiewendufanweineishiresuolengzhangde。－bizhezhu（7）fuhao°ClaiziruidianrenAnders Celsius xingdeshouzimuC。Celsiusyu1742nianjianyiliaozhetaowendubiaozhun。°Czaihanyuzhongduzuo“sheshiwendu”。lingyouyitaozaihangbanshangchangtingdaodewenbiaoshihuashi（Fahrenheit）wenbiao. －bizhezhu（8）“guaide”，yingwenweiwell-behaved. xiangbiandianhuolinjiedianfujinmouxiewuliliangduiwendudeyilaiguanxijiushibuguaide。dianxingdeliziyouyehaizaiλ－diandebiresuiwendudebianhua。－bizhezhu。（9）yuzhoudebeijingfusheweishimekeyikanzuoshiheitifushe，wokebudong。－bizhezhu。cankaowenxian[1] Thomas Mann, Magic Mountain, Knopf , New York 1939.[2] caozexian，wulixueyaowenjiaozi005：puxue：kandemohuanyishu，《wuli》36juan11qi，886-887(2007）.[3] Thomas D. McGee, Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement, John Wiley & Sons (1988).[4] wangkelin，caozexian，shijianbiaoduyushenzaoqiyuzhouyinanwenti，《wuli》38juan，11qi，769－778(2009).[5] Philip Anderson in L. M. Brown, A. Pais, B. Pippard (Eds.), Twentieth Century Physics，IOP Publishing, 1995）pp.2017.[6] caozexian，wulixueyaowenjiaozi027: zuofeishang－the myth of entropy, 《wuli》，38juan9qi，675－680（2009）.zhu：benwenweicaozexianzhu 《wulixueyaowenjiaozi》di28pian，yuantiwei《wendu：yuejinlengnuanshuoyanliang》。te bie ti shi1. jinru『fanpu』weixingongzhonghaodibucaidan“jingpinzhuanlan“，kechayuebutongzhutixiliekepuwenzhang。2. 『fanpu』kaitongliaoanyuejiansuowenzhanggongneng。guanzhugongzhonghao，huifusiweishuzuchengdenianfen+yuefen，ru“1903”，kehuoqu2019nian3yuedewenzhangsuoyin，yicileitui。banquanshuoming：huanyinggerenzhuanfa，renhexingshidemeitihuojigouweijingshouquan，budezhuanzaihezhaibian。zhuanzaishouquanqingzai「fanpu」weixingongzhonghaoneilianxihoutai。《fanpu》，kexuejialinghangdehaokepu。guojizhumingwulixuejiawenxiaogangyushengwuxuejiayanninggongtongchurenzongbianji，yushushiweibutonglingyuyiliuxuezhezuchengdebianweihuiyiqi，yunigongtongqiusuo。guanzhu《fanpu》（weixinhao：fanpu2019）canyugengduotaolun。ercizhuanzaihuohezuoqinglianxifanpugongzhonghaohoutai。
如(搁耻)此(颁颈)看(碍补苍)来(尝补颈)，天(罢颈补苍)狮(厂丑颈)集(闯颈)团(罢耻补苍)与(驰耻)国(骋耻辞)际(闯颈)经(闯颈苍驳)济(闯颈)战(窜丑补苍)略(尝耻别)研(驰补苍)究(闯颈耻)院(驰耻补苍)确(蚕耻别)实(厂丑颈)有(驰辞耻)着(窜丑耻辞)莫(惭辞)大(顿补)的(顿别)关(骋耻补苍)系(齿颈)。
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大意是：陶仲文知道朱厚熜恩威难测不敢假打于是为朱厚熜提供了一个夜夜驭女的绝方并附耳：放松、放松准行